北大六院郭延庆：应用行为分析专业名词表（中）

北大六院郭延庆

 特别说明：昨天发布以后，看各位留言，主要有两个意见，第一是希望得到中文版。中文版可以从2012版的《应用行为分析》白皮书获得，武汉大学出版社。在729-754页。但中文翻译质量不是特别高，聊作参考可以，还是以反复琢磨原文为好。其次，是个别善意的朋友指出其中拼写、词汇的错漏，我自己昨天也利用碎片时间再温习了若干词汇，最多见的问题是把几个（两个）单词合写没有空格的现象。我自己因为读过若干遍，又手打输入一遍，几乎无障碍。但对于还不熟悉相关专业和词汇的家长或者老师，就造成了困惑。希望大家谅解，因为这就是个人的学习笔记，为了方便大家像我一样利用碎片时间查阅翻找温习，才贡献出来，还没有来得及系统校对和梳理。如果希望系统学习，还以参考原著阅读为好。

特此说明。

小半年前，为备课行为分析，启动了重读这部700多页英文原版的行为圣经的想法。如今课已结束，书也读完。 

临至末了，小时候抄书的癖好又痒痒难耐。手打了A到Z所有专业词汇共50多页。到今天早上顺利完成。算是给这一年的家长成长论坛的一个献礼吧。 

书不在读多而贵读精，我资质鲁钝，家境贫寒，遇好书每生抄之的想法。如今年近五十仍有此好，不知当喜还是当哭！

 (续上… 

Fading

A procedure for transferring stimuluscontrol in whichfeatures of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., shape, size,position, color)controlling a behavior are gradually changed to a new stimuluswhile maintainingthe current behavior; stimulus features can be faded in(enhanced) or faded out(reduced).

Feature stimulus class

Stimuli that share common physical forms orstructures(e.g., made from wood, four legs, round, blue) or common relativerelationships(e.g., bigger than, hooter than, next to). (compare to arbitrarystimulusclass.)

Fixed interval (FI)

A schedule of reinforcement in whichreinforcement isdelivered for the first response emitted following the passageof a fixedduration of time since the last response was reinforced (e.g., on anFI 3-minuteschedule, the first response following the passage of 3 minutes isreinforced).

Fixed-interval DRO (FI-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement isavailable at theend of intervals of fixed duration and delivered contingent onthe absence ofthe problem behavior during each interval. (see differentialreinforcement ofother behavior (DRO).)

Fixed momentary DRO (FM-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement isavailable atspecific moments of time, which are separated by a fixed amount oftime, anddelivered contingent on the not occurring at those moments. (seedifferentialreinforcement of other behavior (DRO).)

Fixed ratio (FR)

A schedule of reinforcement requiring afixed number ofresponses for reinforcement (e.g., an FR 4 schedulereinforcement follows everyfourth response).

Fixed-time schedule (FT)

A schedule for the delivery ofnoncontingent stimuli inwhich a time interval remains the same from onedelivery to the next.

Formal similarity

A situation that occurs when thecontrolling antecedentstimulus and the response or response product (a) sharethe same sense mode(e.g., both stimulus and response are visual, auditory, ortactile) and (b)physically resemble each other. The verbal relations withformal similarity areechoic, coping a text, and imitation as it relates tosign language.

Forward chaining

A method for teaching behavior chains thatbegins with thelearner being prompted and taught to perform the first behaviorin the taskanalysis; the trainer completes the remaining steps in the chain. Whenthe learnershows competence in performing the first step in the chain, he isthen taught toperform the first two behaviors in the chain, with the trainingcompleting thechain. This process is continued until the learner completes theentire chainindependently.

Free operant

Any operant behavior that results inminimal displacementof the participant in time and space. A free operant canbe emitted at nearlyany time; it is discrete, it requires minimal time of rcompletion, and it canproduce a wide range of response rates. Examples in ABAinclude (a) the numberof words read during a 1-minute counting period, (b) thenumber of hand slapsper 6 seconds, and (c) the number of letter strokeswritten in 3 minutes.(Contrast with discrete trial.)

Free-operant avoidance

A contingency in which responses at anytime duringaninterval prior to the scheduled onset of an aversive stimulusdelays thepresentation of the aversive stimulus. (Contrast with discriminatedavoidance.)

Frequency

A ratio of count per observation time;often expressed ascount per standard unit of time (e.g., per minute, per hour,per day) andcalculated by dividing the number of responses recorded by thenumber ofstandard units of time in which observations were conducted; usedinterchangeablywith rate.

Full-session DRL

A procedure for implementing DRL in whichreinforcement isdelivered at the end of the session if the total number ofresponses emittedduring the session does not exceed a criterion limit. (Seedifferentialreinforcement of low rates (DRL).)

Function-altering effect (relevant tooperant relations)

A relatively permanent change in anorganism’s repertoireof MO, stimulus, and response relations, caused by thereinforcement,punishment, an extinction procedure, or a recovery frompunishment procedure.Respondent function-altering effects result from thepairing and unpairing ofantecedent stimuli.

Function-based definition

Designates responses as members of thetargeted responseclass solely in terms of their common effects on the environment.

Functional analysis

(as part of functional behavior assessment)An analysis ofthe purposes (functions) of problem behavior, whereinantecedents andconsequences representing those in the person’s naturalroutines are arrangedwithin an experimental design so that their separateeffects on problem behaviorcan be observed and contions – contingentattention, contingent escape, andalone – and a control condition in whichproblem behavior is expected to be lowbecause reinforcement is freelyavailable and no demands are placed on theperson.

Functional behavior assessment (FBA)

A systematic method of assessment forobtaininginformation about the purposes (functions) a problem behavior servesfor aperson; decreasing the problem behavior and increasing appropriatebehavior.

Functional communication training (FCT)

An antecedent intervention in which anappropriatecommunicative behavior is taught as a replacement behavior forproblem behaviorusually evoked by an establishing operation (EO); involvesdifferentialreinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA).

Functional relation

A verbal statement summarizing the resultsof anexperiment (or group of related experiments) that describes the occurrenceofthe phenomena under study as a function of the operation of one ormorespecified and controlled variables in the experiment in which a specificchangein one event (the dependent variable) can be produced by manipulatinganotherevent (the independent variable), and that the change in the dependentvariablewas unlikely the result of other factors (confounding variables); inbehavioranalysis expressed as b=f(x1), (x2),….,where b is the behavior and x1,x2,etc., are environment variables of which the behavior is a function.

Functional equivalent

Serving the same function or purpose;differenttopographies of behavior are functionally equivalent if they producethe sameconsequences.

General case analysis

A systematic process for identifying andselectingteaching examples that represent the full range of stimulus variationsandresponse requirements in the generalization setting(s). (See alsomultipleexemplar training and teaching sufficient examples.)

Generalization

A generic term for a variety of behavioralprocesses andbehavior change outcomes. (See generalization gradient,generalized behaviorchange, response generalization, response maintainance,setting/situationgeneralization, and stimulus generalization.)

Generalization across subjects

Changes in the behavior of people notdirectly treated byan intervention as a function of treatment contingenciesapplied to otherpeople.

Generalization probe

Any measurement of a learner’s performanceof a targetbehavior in a setting and/or stimulus situation in which directtraining has notbeen provided.

Generalization setting

Any place or stimulus situation thatdiffers in somemeaningful way from the instructional setting and in whichperformance of thetarget behavior is desired. (Contrast with instructionalsetting.)

Generalized behavior change

A behavior change that has not been taughtdirectly.Generalized outcomes take one, or a combination of, three primaryforms:response maintenance, stimulus/setting generalization, andresponsegeneralization. Sometimes called generalized outcome.

Generalized conditioned punisher

A stimulus change that, as a result ofhaving been pairedwith many other punishers, functions as punishment undermost conditions becauseit is free from the control of motivating conditionsfor specific types ofpunishment.

Generalized conditioned reinforce

A conditioned reinforce that as a result ofhaving beenpaired with many other reinforcers does not depend on anestablishing operationfor any particular form of reinforcement for itseffectiveness.

Generic (tact) extension

A tact evoked by a novel stimulus thatshares all of therelevant or defining features associated with the originalstimulus.

Graph

A visual format for displaying data;reveals relationsamong and between a series of measurements and relevantvariables.

Group contingency

A contingency in which reinforcement forall members of agroup is dependent on the behavior of (a) a person within thegroup, (b) aselect group of members within the larger group, or (c) eachmember of the groupmeeting a performance criterion. (See dependent groupcontingency, independentgroup contingency, interdependent group contingency.)

Habilitation

Habiliation (adjustment) occurs when aperson’s repertoirehas been changed such that short- and long-term reinforcersare maximized and short-and long-term punishers are minimized.

Habit reversal

A multiple-component treatment package forreducingunwanted habits such as fingernail biting and muscle tics; treatmenttypicallyincludes self-awareness training involving response detection andprocedures foridentifying events that precede and trigger the response;competing responsetraining; and motivation techniques includingself-administered consequences,social support systems, and procedures forpromoting the generalization andmaintenance of treatment gains.

Habituation

A decrease in responsiveness to repeatedpresentations ofa stimulus; most often used to describe a reduction ofrespondent behavior as afunction of repeated presentation of the elicitingstimulus over a short span oftime; some researchers suggest that the conceptalso applies to within-sessionchanges in operant behavior.

Hallway time-out

A procedure for implementing time-out inwhich, contingenton the occurrence of an inappropriate behavior, the studentis removed from the classroomto a hallway location near the room for aspecified period of time.

Hero procedure

Another term for a dependent groupcontingency (i.e., aperson earns a reward for the group).

High-probability (high-p) request sequence

An antecedent intervention in which two tofive easy taskswith a known history of learner compliance (the high-prequests) are presentedin quick succession immediately before requesting thetarget task, the low-prequest. Also called interspersed requests, pretaskrequests, or behavioralmomentum.

Higher order conditioning

Development of a conditioned reflex bypairing of aneutral stimulus (NS) with a conditioned stimulus (CS). Alsocalled secondaryconditioning.

History of reinforcement

An inclusive term referring in general toall of aperson’s learning experiences and more specifically to pastconditioning withrespect to particular response classes or aspects of a person’srepertoire. (Seeontogeny.)

Hypothetical construct

A presumed but unobserved process or entity(e.g., Freud’sID, ego, and superego).

Imitation

A behavior controlled by any physicalmovement that servesas a novel model excluding vocal-verbal behavior, hasformal similarity with themodel, and immediately follows the occurrence of themodel (e.g., within secondsof the model presentation). An imitative behavioris a new behavior emittedfollowing a novel antecedent event (i.e., the model).(See formal similarity;contrast with echoic.)

Impure tact

A verbal operant involving a response thatis evoked byboth an MO and a nonverbal stimulus; thus, the response is partmand and parttact. (See mand and tact.)

Independent group contingency

A contingency in which reinforcement foreach member of agroup is dependent on that person’s meeting a performance criterionthat is ineffect for all members of the group.

Independent variable

The variable that is systematicallymanipulated by theresearcher in an experiment to see whether changes in theindependent variableproduce reliable changes in the dependent variable. Inapplied behavioranalysis, it is usually an environment event or conditionantecedent orconsequent to the dependent variable. Sometimes called theintervention ortreatment variable. (Compare with dependent variable.)

Indirect functional assessment

Structured interviews, checklists, ratingscales, orquestionnaires used to obtain information from people who arefamiliar with theperson exhibiting the problem behavior (e.g., teachers,parents, caregivers,and/or the individual him-or herself); used to identifyconditions or events inthe natural environment that correlate with the problembehavior.

Indirect measurement

Occurs when the behavior that is measuredis in some waydifferent from the behavior of interest; considered less validthan directmeasurement because inferences about the relation between the dataobtained andthe actual behavior of interest are required. (Contrast withdirectmeasurement.)

Indiscriminable contingency

A contingency that makes it difficult forthe learner todiscriminate whether the next response will producereiniforcement.Practitioners use indiscriminable contingencies in the form ofintermittentschedules of reinforcement and delayed rewards to promotegeneralized behaviorchange.

Informed consent

When the potential recipient of services orparticipant ina research study gives his explicit permission before anyassessment ortreatment is provided. Full disclosure of effects and sideeffects must beprovided. To give consent, the person must (a) demonstrate the capacitytodecide, (b) do so voluntarily, and (c) have adequate knowledge of allsalientaspects of the treatment.

Instructional setting

The environment where instruction occurs;includes allaspects of the environment, planned and unplanned, that may influencethelearner’s acquisition and generalization of the target behavior. (Contrastwithgeneralization setting.)

Interdependent group contingency

A contingency in which reinforcement forall members of agroup is dependent on each member of the group meeting aperformance criterionthat is in effect for all members of the group.

Intermittent schedule of reinforcement(INT)

A contingency of reinforcement in whichsome, but not all,occurrences of the behavior produce reinforcement.

Internal validity

The extent to which an experiment shows convincinglythatchanges in behavior are a function of the independent variable and nottheresult of uncontrolled or unknown variables. (Compare to external validity)

Interobserver agreement (IOA)

The degree to which two or more independentobserversreport the same observed values after measuring the same events.

Interresponse time (IRT)

A measure of temporal locus; defined as theelapsed timebetween two successive responses.

Interval-by-interval IOA

An index of the agreement between observersfor dataobtained by interval recording or time sampling measurement;calculated for agiven session or measurement period by comparing the twoobservers’ recordingsof the occurrence or nonoccurrence of the behavior in eachobservation intervaland dividing the number of intervals and multiplying by100. Also called thepoint-by-point or total interval IOA. (Compare toscored-interval IOA andunscored-interval IOA.)

Interval DRL

A procedure for implementing DRL in which thetotalsession is divided into the equal intervals and reinforcement is providedat theend of each interval in which the number of responses during theinterval isequal to or below a criterion limit. (See diffenetial reinforcementof low rate(DRL).)

Intraverbal

An elementary verbal operant that is evokedby a verbaldiscriminative stimulus and that does not have point-to-pointcorrespondencewith that verbal stimulus.

Irreversibility

A situation that occurs when the level ofrespondingobserved in a previous phase cannot be reproduced even though theexperimentalconditions are the same as they were during the earlier phase.

Lag reinforcement schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in whichreinforcement iscontingent on a response being different in some specified way(e.g., differenttopography) from the previous response (e.g., Lag 1) or aspecified number ofprevious responses (e.g., Lag 2 or more).

Latency See response latency

Level

The value on the vertical axis around whicha series of behavioral measures converge.1

Level system

A component of some token economy systemsin which participants advance up (or down) through a succession of levelscontingent on their behavior at the current level. The performance criteria andsophistication or difficulty of the behaviors required at each level are higherthan those of preceding levels; as participants advance to higher levels, theygain access to more desirable reinforcers, increased privileges, and greaterindependence.

Limited hold

A situation in which reinforcement isavailable only during a finite time following the elapse of an FI or VIinterval; if the target response does not occur within the time limit,reinforcement is withheld and a new interval begins (e.g., on an FI 5-minuteschedule with a limited hold of 30 seconds after the end of the 5-minuteinterval).

Line graph

Based on a Cartesian plane, atwo-dimensional area formed by the intersection of two perpendicular lines. Anypoint within the plane represents a specific relation between the twodimensions described by the intersecting lines. It is the most common graphicformat for displaying data in applied behavior analysis.

Listener

Someone who provides reinforcement forverbal behavior. A listener may also serve as an audience evoking verbalbehavior. (Contrast with speaker.)

Local response rate

The average rate of response during a smallperiod of time within a larger period for which an overall response rate has beengiven. (See overall response rate.)

Magnitude

The force or intensity with which aresponse is emitted; provides important quantitative parameters used indefining and verifying the occurrence of some response classes. Responsesmeeting those criteria are measured and reported by one or more fundamental orderivative measurement such as frequency, duration, or latency. Sometimescalled amplitude.

Maintenance

Two different meanings in applied behavioranalysis: (a) the extent to which the learner continues to perform the targetbehavior after a portion or all of the intervention has been terminated (i.e.,response maintenance), a dependent variable or characteristic of behavior and(b) a condition in which treatment has been discontinued or partially withdrawn,an independent variable or experimental condition.

Mand

An elementary verbal operant that is evokedby an MO and followed by specific reinforcement.

Massed practice

A self-directed behavior change techniquein which the person forces himself to perform an undesired behavior (e.g., acompulsive ritual) repeatedly, which sometimes decreases the future frequencyof the behavior.

Matching law

The allocation of responses to choicesavailable on concurrent schedules of reinforcement; rates of responding acrosschoices are distributed in proportions that match the rates of reinforcementreceived from each choice alternative.

Matching to sample

A procedure for investigating conditionalrelations and stimulus equivalence. A matching to sample trial begins with theparticipant making a response that presents or reveals the same stimulus; next,the sample stimulus may may not be removed, and two or more comparison stimuliare presented. The participant then selects one of the comparison stimulus thatmatches the sample stimulus are reinforced, and no reinforcement is providedfor response selecting the nonmatching comparison stimuli.

Mean count-per-interval IOA

The average percentage of agreement betweenthe counts reported by two observers in a measurement period comprised of aseries of smaller counting times; a more conservative measure of IOA than totalcount IOA.

Mean duration-per-occurrence IOA

An IOA index for duration per occurrencedata; also a more conservative and usually more meaningful assessment of IOAfor total duration data calculated for a given session or measurement period bycomputing the average percentage of agreement of the durations reported by twoobservers for each occurrence of the target behavior.

Measurement bias

Nonrandom measurement error; a form ofinaccurate measurement in which the data consistently overestimate orunderestimate the true value of event.

Measurement by permanent product

A method of measuring behavior after it hasoccurred by recording the effects that the behavior produced on theenvironment.

Mentalism

An approach to explaining behavior thatassumes that a mental, or “inner,” dimension exists that differs from abehavioral dimension and that phenomena in this dimension either directly causeor at least mediate some forms of behavior, if not all.

Metaphorical (tact) extension

A tact evoked by a novel stimulus thatshares some, but not all, of the relevant features of the original stimulus.

Methodological behaviorism

A philosophical position that views behavioralevents that cannot be publicly observed as outside the realm of science.

Metonymical (tact) extension

A tact evoked by a novel stimulus thatshares none of the relevant features of the original stimulus configuration,but some irrelevant yet related feature has acquired stimulus control.

Mixed schedule (Mix)

A compound schedule of reinforcementconsisting of two or more basic schedules of reinforcement (elements) thatoccur in an alternating, usually random, sequence; no discriminative stimuliare correlated with the presence or absence of each element of the schedule,and reinforcement is delivered for meeting the response requirements of theelement in effect at any time.

Momentary time sampling

A measurement method in which the presenceor absence of behaviors are recorded at precisely specified time intervals.(Contrast with interval recording.)

Motivating operation (MO)

An environmental variable that (a) alters(increases or decreases) the reinforcing or punishing effectiveness of somestimulus, object, or event; and (b) alters (increases or decreases) the currentfrequency of all behavior that has been reinforced or punished by thatstimulus, object, or event. (See abative effect, abolishing operation (AO),behavior-altering effect, evocative effect, establishing operation (EO),value-altering effect.)

Multielement design  See alternating treatment design.

Multiple baseline across behaviors design

A multiple baseline design in which thetreatment variable is applied to two or more different behaviors of the samesubjects in the same setting.

Multiple baseline across subjects design

A multiple baseline design in which thetreatment variable is applied to the same behavior of the two or more subjects(or groups) in the same setting.

Multiple baseline design

An experimental design that begins with theconcurrent measurement of two or more behaviors in a baseline condition,followed by the application of the treatment variable to one of the behaviorswhile baseline conditions remain in effect for the other behavior(s). Aftermaximum change has been noted in the first behavior, the treatment variable isapplied in sequential fashion to each of the other behaviors in the design.Experimental control is demonstrated if each behavior shows similar changeswhen, and only when, the treatment variable is introduced.

Multiple control (of verbal behavior)

There are two types of multiple control:(a) convergent multiple control occurs when a single verbal response is afunction of more than one variable and (b) what is said has more than oneantecedent source of control. Divergent multiple control occurs when a singleantecedent variable affects the strength of more than one responses.

Multiple exemplar training

Instruction that provides the learner withpractice with a variety of stimulus conditions, response variations, andresponse topographies to ensure the acquisition of desired stimulus controlsresponse forms; used to promote both setting/situation generalization andresponse generalization. (See teaching sufficient examples.)

Multiple probe design

A variation of the multiple baseline designthat features intermittent measures, or probes during the baseline. It is usedto evaluate the effects of instruction on skill sequences in which it isunlikely that the subject can improve performance on later in the sequencebefore learning prior steps.

Multiple schedule (mult)

A compound schedule of reinforcementconsisting of two or more basic schedule of reinforcement (elements) that occurin an alternating, usually random, sequence; a discriminative stimulus iscorrelated with the presence or absence of each element of the schedule, andreinforcement is delivered for meeting the response requirements of the elementin effect at any time.

Multiple treatment interference

The effects of one treatment on a subject’sbehavior being confounding by the influence of another treatment administeredin the same study.

Multiple treatment reversal design

Any experimental design that uses theexperimental methods and logic of the reversal tactic to compare the effects oftwo or more experimental conditions to baseline and/or to one another (e.g.,A-B-A-B-C-B-C, A-B-A-C-A-D-A-C-A-D, A-B-A-B-C-B+C).

Naïve observer

An observer who is unaware of the study’spurpose and/or the experimental conditions in effect during a given phase orobservation period. Data obtained by a naïve observer are less likely to beinfluenced by observers’ expectations.

Naturally existing contingency

Any contingency of reinforcement (orpunishment) that operates independent of the behavior analyst’s orpractitioner’s efforts; includes socially mediated contingencies contrived byother people and already in effect in the relevant setting. (Contrast withcontrived contingency.)

Negative punishment

A response behavior is followed immediatelyby the removal of a stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of the stimulus),that decreases the future frequency of similar responses under similarconditions; sometimes called type 2 punishement. (Contrast with positivereinforce.)

Negative reinforcer

A stimulus whose termination (or reductionin intensity ) functions as reinforcement. (Contrast with positive reinforcer.)

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus change that does not elicitrespondent behavior. (Compare to conditioned stimulus (CS), unconditionedstimulus (US).)

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR)

A procedure in which stimuli with knownreinforceing properties are presented on fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT)schedules completely independent of behavior; often used as an antecedentintervention to reduce problem behavior. (See fixed-time schedule (FT),variable-time schedule (VT).)

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) reversaltechnique

An experimental control technique thatdemonstrates the effects of reinforcement by using noncontingent reinforcement(NCR) as a control condition instead of a no-reinforcement (baseline)condition. During the NCR condition, the stimulus change used as reinforcementin the reinforcement condition is presented on a fixed or variable timeschedule independent of the subject’s behavior. A higher level of respondingduring the reinforcement condition than during the NCR condition demonstratesthat the changes in behavior are the result of contingent reinforcement, notsimply the presentation of or contact with the stimulus event. (Compare withDRI/DRA reversal technique, DRO reversal technique.)

Nonexclusion time-out

A procedure for implementing time-out inwhich, contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior, the person remainswithin the setting, but does not have access to reinforcement, for  a specified period.

Normalization

As a philosophy and principle, the beliefthat people with disabilities should, to the maximum extent possible, bephysically and socially integrated into the mainstream of society regardless ofthe degree or type of disability. As an approach to intervention, the use ofprogressively more typical settings and procedures “to establish and/ormaintain personal behaviors which are as culturally normal as possible”(Wolfensberger, 1972, p.28).

Observed value

A measure produced by an observation andmeasurement system. Observed values serve as the data that the researcher andothers will interpret to form conclusions about an investigation. (Compare withtrue value.)

Observer drift

Any unintended change in the way anobserver uses a measurement system over the course of an investigation thatresults in measurement error; often entails a shift in the observer’sinterpretation of the original definitions of the target behavior subsequent tobeing trained. (See measurement bias, observer reactivity.)

Observer reactivity

Influence on the data reported by anobserver that results from the observer’s awareness that others are evaluatingthe data reports. (See also measurement bias and observer drift.)

Ontogeny

The history of the development of anindividual organism during its lifetime. (See history of reinforcement; compareto phylogeny.)

Operant behavior

Behavior that is selected, maintainted, andbrought under stimulus control as a function of its consequences; each person’srepertoire of operant behavior is a product of his history of interactions withthe environment (ontogeny).

Operant conditioning

The basic process by which operant learningoccurs; consequences (stimulus changes immediately following response) resultsin an increased (reinforcement) or decreased (punishment) frequency of the sametype of behavior under similar motivational and environmental conditions in thefuture. (See motivating operation, punishment, reinforcement, response class,stimulus control.)

Overall response rate

The rate of response over a given timeperiod. (See local response rate.)

Overcorrection

A behavior change tactic based on positivepunishment in which, contingent on the problem behavior, the learner isrequired to engage in effortful behavior directly or logically related to thedamage caused by the behavior. Forms of overcorrection are restitutionalovercorrection and positive practice overcorrection. (See positive practiceovercorrection, restitutional overcorrection.)

Parametric analysis

An experiment designed to discover thedifferential effects of a range of values of an independent variable.

Parsimony

The practice of ruling out simple, logicalexplanations, experimentally or conceptually, before considering more complexor abstract explanations.

Partial-interval recording

A time-sampling method for measuringbehavior in which the observation period is divdided into a series of brieftime intervals (typically from 5 to 10 seconds). The observer records whetherthe target behavior occurred at any time during the interval. Partial-intervalrecording is not concerned with how many times the behavior occurred at anytime during the interval or how long the behavior was present, just that itoccurred at some point during the interval; tends to overestimate theproportion of the observation period of that the behavior actually occurred.

Partition time-out

An exclusion procedure for implementingtime-out in which, contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior, theperson remains within the time-in seting, but stay behind a wall, shield, orbarrier that restricts the view.

Percentage

A ratio (i.e., a proportion) formed bycombining the same dimensional quantities, such as count (mumber/number) ortime (duration/duration; latency/latency); expressed as a number of parts per100; typically expressed as a ration of the number of responses of a certaintype per total number of responses (or opportunities or intervals in which sucha response (or opportunities or intervals in which such a response could haveoccurred). A percentage presents a proportional quantity per 100.

Philosophical doubt

An attitude that the truthfulness andvalidity of all scientific theory and knowledge should be continuallyquestioned.

Phylogeny

The history of the natural evolution of aspecies. (compare to ontogeny.)

Pivotal behavior

A behavior that, when learned, producescorresponding modifications or covariation in other untrained behaviors.(Compare to behavioral cusp.)

Placebo control

A procedure that prevents a subject fromdetecting the presence or absence of the treatment variable. To the subject theplacebo condition appears the same as the treatment condition (e.g., a placebopill contains an inert substance but looks, feels, and tastes exactly like apill that contains the treatment drug). (See double-blind control.)

Planned activity check (PLACHECK)

A variation of momentary time sampling inwhich the observer records whether each person in a group is engaged in thetarget behavior at specific points in time; provides a measure of “groupbehavior.”

Planned ignoring

A procedure for implementing time-out inwhich social reinforcers – usually attention, physical contact, and verbal interaction– are withheld for a brief period contingent on the occurrence of the targetbehavior.

Point-to-point correspondence

A relation between the stimulus andresponse or response product that occurs when the beginning, middle, and end ofthe verbal stimulus matches the beginning, middle, and end of the verbalresponse. The verbal relations with point-to-point correspondence are echoic,copying a text, imitation as it relates to sign language, textual, andtranscription.

Positive practice overcorrection

A form of overcorrection in which,contingent on an occurrence of the target behavior, the learner is required torepeated a correct form of the behavior, or a behavior incompatible with theproblem behavior, a specified number of times; entails an educative component.(See overcorrection, restitutional overcorrection.)

Positive punishment

A behavior is followed immediately by thepresentation of a stimulus that decreases the future frequency of the behavior;sometimes called type 1 punishment. (Contrast with negative punishment.)

Positive reinforcement

Occurs when a behavior is followedimmediately by the presentation of a stimulus that increases the futurefrequency of the behavior in similar conditions (Contrast with negativereinforcement.)

Positive reinforcer

A stimulus whose presentation or onsetfunctions as reinforcement. (Contrast with negative reinforce.)

Postreinforcement pause

The absence of responding for a period oftime following reinforcement; an effect commonly produced by fixed interval(FI) and fixed ratio (FR) schedules of reinforcement.

Practice effects

Improvements in performance resulting fromopportunities to perform a behavior repeatedly so that baseline measures can beobtained.

Prediction

A statement of the anticipated outcome of apresently unknown or future measurement; one of the tree components of theexperimental reasoning, or baseline logic, used in single-subject researchdesigns. (See replication, verification.)

Premack principle

A principle that states that making theopportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior contingent on theoccurrence of a low-frequency behavior will function as reinforcement for thelow-frequency behavior. (See also response-deprivation hypothesis.)

Principle of behavior

A statement describing a functionalrelation between behavior and one or more of its controlling variables withgenerality across organisms, species, settings, behaviors, and time (e.g.,extinction, positive reinforcement); an empirical generalization inferred from manyexperiments demonstrating the same functional relation.

Procedural fidelity  See treatment integrity

Programming common stimuli

A tactic for promoting setting/situationgeneralization by making the instructional setting similar to thegeneralization setting; the two-step process involves (1) identifying salientstimuli that characterize the generalization settings and (2) incorporatingthose stimuli into the instructional setting.

Progressive schedule of reinforcement

A schedule that systematically thins eachsuccessive reinforcement opportunity independent of the individual’s behavior;progressive ratio (PR) and progressive interval (PI) schedules are thinnedusing arithmetic or geometric progressions.

Punisher

A stimulus change that decreases the futurefrequency of behavior that immediately precedes it. (See aversive stimulus,conditioned punisher, unconditioned punisher.)

Punishment

Occurs when stimulus change immediatelyfollows a response and decrease the future frequency of that type of behaviorin similar conditions. (See negative punishment, positive punishment.)

Radical behaviorism

A thoroughgoing form of behaviorism thatattempts to understand all human behavior, including private events such asthoughts and feelings, in terms of controlling variables in the history of theperson (ontogeny) and the species (phylogeny).

Rate

A ratio of count per observation time;often expressed as count per standard unit of time (e.g., per minute, per hour,per day) and calculated by dividing the number of responses recorded by thenumber of standard units of time in which observations were conducted; usedinterchangeably with frequency. The ration is formed by combining the differentdimensional quantities of count and time (i.e., count time). Ratios formed fromdifferent dimensional quantities retain their dimensional quantities. Rate andfrequency in behavioral measurement are synonymous terms. (Contrast withpercentage.)

Ratio strain

A behavioral effect associated with abruptincreases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinnerreinforcement schedules; common effects include avoidance, aggression, andunpredictable pause or cessation in responding.

Reactivity

Effects of an observation and measurementprocedure on the behavior being measured. Reactivity is most likely whenmeasurement procedures are obtrusive, especially if the person being observedis aware of the observer’s presence and purpose.

Recovery from punishment procedure

The occurrence of a previously punishedtype of response without its punishing consequence. This procedure is analogousto the extinction of previously reinforced behavior and has the effect ofundoing the effect of the punishment.

Reflex

A stimulus-response relation consisting ofan antecedent stimulus and the respondent behavior it elicits (e.g., brightlight-pupil contraction). Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes protectagainst harmful stimuli, help regulate the internal balance and economy of theorganism, and promote reproduction. (See conditioned reflex, respondentbehavior, respondent conditioning, unconditioned reflex.)

Reflexive conditioned motivating operation(CMO-R)

A stimulus that acquires MO effectivenessby preceding some form of worsening or improvement. It is exemplified by thewarning stimulus in a typical escape-avoidance procedure, which establishes itsown offset as reinforcement and evokes all behavior that has accomplished thatoffset.

Reflexivity

A type of stimulus-to-stimulus relation inwhich the learner, without any prior training or reinforcement for doing so,selects a comparison stimulus that is the same as the sample stimulus (e.g., A= A). Reflexivity would be demonstrated in the following matching-to-samplingprocedure: the sample stimulus is a picture of a tree, and the three comparisonstimuli are a picture of a mouse, a picture of a cookie, and a duplicate of thetree picture used as the sample stimulus. The learner selects the picture ofthe tree without specific reinforcement in the past for making thetree-picutre-to-tree-picture match. (It is also called generalized identitymatching.) (See stimulus equivalence; compare to transivity, symmetry.)

Reinforcement

Occurs when a stimulus change immediatelyfollows a response and increases the future frequency of that type of behaviorin similar conditions. (see negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement.)

Reinforcer

A stimulus change that increases the futurefrequency of behavior that immediately precedes it. (see conditioned reinforce,unconditioned reinforce.)

Reinforce-abolishing effect (of amotivating operation)

A decrease in the reinforcing effectivenessof a stimulus, object, or event caused by a motivating operation. For example,food ingestion abolishes (decreases) the reinforcing effectiveness of food.

Reinforce assessment

Refers to a variety of direct, empiricalmethods for presenting one or more stimuli contingent on a target response andmeasuring their effectiveness as reinforcers.

Reinforce-establishing effect (of amotivating operation)

An increase in the reinforcingeffectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event caused by a motivating operation.For example, food deprivation establishes (increases) the reinforcingeffectiveness of food.

Relevance of behavior rule

Holds that only behaviors likely to producereinforcement in the person’s natural environment should be targeted forchange.

Reliability (of measurement)

Refers to the consistency of measurement,specifically, the extent to which repeated measurement of the same event yieldsthe same value.

Repeatability

Refers to the fact that a behavior canoccur repeatedly through time (i.e., behavior can be counted); one of the threedimensional quantities of behavior from which all behavioral measurements arederived. (See count, frequency, rate, celebration, temporal extent, andtemporal locus.)

Repertoire

All of the behaviors a person can do; or aset of behaviors relevant to a particular setting or task (e.g., gardening,mathematical problem solving).

Replication

(a) Repeating conditions within an experimentto determine the reliability of effects and increase internal validity. (Seebaseline logic, prediction, verification.) (b) Repeating whole experiments toother subjects, settings, and/or behaviors. (See direct replication, externalvalidity, systematic replication.)

Resistance to extinction

The relative frequency with which operantbehavior is emitted during extinction.

Respondent behavior

The response component of a reflex;behavior that is elicited, or induced, by antecedent stimuli. (See reflex, respondentconditioning.)

Respondent conditioning

A stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure inwhich a neutral stimulus (NS) is presented with an unconditioned stimulus (US)until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits theconditioned response (also called classical or Pavlovian conditioning). (Seeconditioned reflex, higher order conditioning.)

Respondent extinction

The repeated presentation of a conditionedstimulus (CS) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US); the CS graduallyloses its ability to elicit the conditioned response until the conditionedreflex no longer appears in the individual’s repertoire.

Response

A single instance or occurrence of aspecific calss or type of behavior. Technical definition: an “action of anorganism’s effector. An effector is an organ at the end of an efferent nervefiber that is specialized for altering its environment mechanically,chemically, or in terms of other energy changes” (Michael, 2004, P.8.). (seeresponse class.)

Response blocking

A procedure in which the therapistphysically intervenes as soon as the learner begins to emit a problem behaviorto prevent completion of the targeted behavior.

Response class

A group of responses of varying topography,all of which produce the same effect on the environment.

Response cost

The contingent loss of reinforcers (e.g., afine), producing a decrease of the frequency of behavior; a form of negativepunishment.

Response-deprivation hypothesis

A model for predicting whether contingentaccess to one behavior will function as reinforcement for engaging in anotherbehavior based on whether access to the contingent behavior represents arestriction of the activity compared to the baseline level of engagement. (SeePremack principle.)

Response differentiation

A behavior change produced by differentialreinforcement: Reinforced members of the current response class occur withgreater frequency, and unreinforced members occur less frequently (undergoextinction); the overall result is the emergence of a new response class.

Response generalization

The extent to which a learner emitsuntrained responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained targetbehavior. (Compare to response maintenance and setting/situationgeneralization.)

Response latency

A measure of temporal locus; the elapsedtime from the onset of a stimulus (e.g., task direction, cue) to the initiationof a response.

Response maintenance

The extent to which a learner continues toperform the target behavior after a portion or all of the interventionresponsible for the behavior’s initial appearance in the learner’s repertoirehas been terminated. Often called maintenance, durability, behavioralpersistence, and (incorrectly) resistance to extinction. (Compare to responsegeneralization and settings/situation generalization.)

Restitution overcorrection

A form of overcorrection in which,contingent on the problem behavior, the learner is required to repair thedamage or return the environment to its original state and then to engage inadditional behavior to bring the environment to a condition vastly better thanit was in prior to the misbehavior. (See overcorrection and positive practiceovercorrection.)

Reversal design

Any experimental design in which theresearcher attempts to verify the effect of the independent variable by“reversing” responding to a level obtained in a previous condition; encompassesexperimental designs in which the independent variable is withdrawn (A-B-A-Bdesign) or reversed in its focus (e.g., DRI/DRA). (See A-B-A design, A-B-A-Bdesign, B-A-B, DRI/DRA reversal technique, DRO reversal technique,noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) reversal technique.)

Rule-governed behavior

Behavior controlled by a rule (i.e., averbal statement of an antecedent-behavior-consequence contingency); enableshuman behavior (e.g., fastening seatbelt) to come under the indirect control oftemporally remote or improbable but potentially significant consenquences(e.g., avoiding injury in an auto accident). Often used in contrast tocontingency-shaped behavior, a term used to indicate behavior selected andmaintained by controlled, temporally close consequences.