北大六院郭延庆：应用行为分析专业名词表（上）

北大六院郭延庆

小半年前，为备课行为分析，启动了重读这部700多页英文原版的行为圣经的想法。如今课已结束，书也读完。临至末了，小时候抄书的癖好又痒痒难耐。手打了A到Z所有专业词汇共50多页。到今天早上顺利完成。算是给这一年的家长成长论坛的一个献礼吧。书不在读多而贵读精，我资质鲁钝，家境贫寒，遇好书每生抄之的想法。如今年近五十仍有此好，不知当喜还是当哭！

A-B design

A two phase experimental design consistingof a pretreatment baseline condition (A) followed by a treatment contidion (B).

A-B-A design

A three phase experimental designconsisting of an initial baseline phase (A) until steady state responding (orcountertherapeutic trend) is obtained, an intervention phase in which thetreatment condition (B) is implemented until the behavior has changed andsteady state responding is obtained, and return to baseline conditions (A) bywithdrawing the independent variable to the initial baseline phase.

A-B-A-B design

An experimental desigh consisting of (1) aninitial baseline phase (A) until steady responding (or countertherapeutictrend) is obtained, (2) an initial intervention phase in which the treatmentvariable (B) is implemented until the behavior has changed and steady stateresponding is obtained, (3) a return to baseline conditions (A) by withdrawingthe independent variable to see whether responding “reverses” to the levelsobserved in the initial baseline phase, and (4) a second intervention phase (B)to see whether initial treatment effects are replicated (also called reversaldesign, withdrawal design).

Abative effect (of a motive operation)

A decrease in the current frequency ofbehavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is increased inreinforcing effectiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, foodingestion abates (decreases the current frequency of ) behavior that has beenreinforced by food.

ABC recording   See anecdotal observation.

Abolishing operation (AO)

A motivating operation that decreases thereinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event. For example, thereinforcing effectiveness of food is abolished as a result of food ingestion.

Accuracy (of measurement)

The extent to which observed values, thedata produced by measuring an event, match the true state, or true values, ofthe event as it exists in nature. (See observed value and true value.)

Adjunctive behavior

Behavior that occurs as a collateral effectof a schedule of periodic reinforcement for other behavior; time-filling orinterim activities (e.g., doodling, idle talking, smoking, drinking) that areinduced by schedules of reinforcement during times when reinforcement isunlikely to be delivered. Also called schedule-induce behavior.

Affirmation of the consequent

A three step form of reasoning that beginswith a true antecedent-consequent (if A, then B) statement and proceeds asfollows: (1) If A is ture, then B is true; (2) B is found to be true; (3)therefore, A is true. Although other factors could be responsible for thetruthfulness of A, a sound experiment affirms several if A then Bpossibilities, each one reducing the likelihood of factors other than theindependent variable being responsible for the observed changes in behavior.

Alternating treatments design

An experimental design in which two or moreconditions (one of which may be a nontreatment control condition) are presentedin rapidly alternating succession (e.g., on alternating sessions or days)independent of the level of responding; differences in responding between oramong conditions are attributed to the effects of the conditions (also calledconcurrent schedule design, multielement design, multiple schedule design).

Alternative schedule

Provides reinforcement whenever therequirement of either a ratio schedule or an interval schedule-the basicschedules that makeup the alternative schedule- is met, regardless of which ofthe component schedule’s requirements is met first.

Anecodotal observation

A form of direct, continuous observation inwhich the observer records a descriptive, temporally sequenced account of allbehaviors of interest and the antecedent conditions and consequences for thosebehaviors as those events occur in the client’s natural environment (alsocalled ABC recording).

Antecedent

An environmental condition or stimuluschange existing or occurring prior to a behavior of interest.

Antecedent intervention

A behavior change strategy that manipulate contingency-independentantecedent stimuli (motivating operations). (See noncontingent reinforcement,high-probability request sequence, and functional communication training. Contrastwith antecedent control, a behaviorchange intervention that manipulates contingency-dependent consequence eventsto affect stimulus control).

Antecedent stimulus class

A set of stimuli that share a commonrelationship. All stimuli in an antecedent stimulus class evoke the sameoperant behavior, or elicit the same respondent behavior. (See arbitrary stimulus class, feature stimulus class.)

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

The science in which tactics derived fromthe principles of behavior are applied to improve socially significant behaviorand experimentation is used to identify the variables for the improvement in behavior.

Arbitrary stimulus class

Antecedent stimuli that evoke the sameresponse but do not resemble each other in physical form or share a relationalaspect such as bigger or under (e.g., peanuts, cheese, coconut milk, andchicken breasts are members of an arbitrary stimulus class if they evoke theresponse “sources of protein”) ( Compare tofeature stimulus class.)

Artifact

An outcome or result that appears to existbecause of the way it is measured but in fact does not correspond to whatactually occurred.

Ascending baseline

A data path that shows an increasing trendin the response measure over time. (Compare with descending baseline.)

Audience

Anyone who functions as a discriminativestimulus evoking verbal behavior. Different audiences may control differentverbal behavior about the same topic because of a differential reinforcementhistory. Teens may describe the same event in different ways when talking topeers versus parents.

Autoclitic

A secondary verbal operant in which someaspect of a speaker’s own verbal behavior functions as an SD or anMO for additional speaker verbal behavior. The autoclitic relation can bethought of as verbal behavior about verbal behavior.

Automatic punishment

Punishment that occurs independent of thesocial mediation by others (i.e., a response product serves as a punisherindependent of the social environment).

Automatic reinforcement

Reinforcement that occurs independent ofthe social mediation of others (e.g., scratching an insect bite relieves theitch).

Automaticity (of reinforcement)

Refers to the fact that behavior ismodified by its consequences irrespective of the person’s awareness; a persondoes not have to recognize or verbalize the relation between her behavior andreinforcing consequence, or even know that a consequence has occurred, forreinforcement to “work”. (Contrast with automatic reinforcement.)

Aversive stimulus

In general, an unpleasant or noxiousstimulus; more technically, a stimulus change or condition that functions (a)to evoke a behavior that has terminated it in the past; (b) as a punisher whenpresented following behavior, and/or (c) as a reinforcer when withdrawnfollowing behavior.

Avoidance contingency

A contingency in which a response preventsor postpones the presentation of a stimulus. (Compare with escape contingency.)

B-A-B design

A three phase experimental design thatbegins with the treatment condition. After steady state responding has beenobtained during the initial treatment phase (B), the treatment variable iswithdrawn (A) to see whether responding changes in the absence of theindependent variable. The treatment variable is then reintroduced (B) in anattempt to recapture the level of responding obtained during the firsttreatment phase.

Backup reinforcers

Tangible objects, activities, or privilegesthat serve as reinforcers and that can be purchased with tokens.

Backward chaining

A teaching procedure in which a trainercompletes all but the last behavior in a chain, which is performed by thelearner, who then receives reinforcement for completing the chain. When thelearner shows competence in performing the final step in the chain, the trainerperforms all but the last two behaviors in the chain, the learner emits thefinal two steps to complete the chain, and reinforcement is delivered. Thissequence is continued until the learner completes the entire chainindependently.

Backward chaining with leaps ahead

A backward chaining procedure in which somesteps in the task analysis are skipped; used to increase the efficiency ofteaching long behavior chains when there is evidence that the skipped steps arein the learner’s repertoire.

Bar graph

A simple and versatile graphic format forsummarizing behavioral data; shares most of the line graph’s features exceptthat it does not have distinct data points representing successive responsemeasures through time. Also called a histogram.

Baseline

A condition of an experiment in which theindependence variable is not present; data obtained during baseline are thebasis for determining the effects of the independent variable; a controlcondition that does not necessarily mean the absence of instruction ortreatment, only the absence of a specific independent variable of experimentalinterest.

Baseline logic

A term sometimes used to refer to theexperimental reasoning inherent in single-subject experimental designs; entailsthree elements: prediction, verification, and replication. (See steady statestrategy.)

Behavior

The activity of living organisms; humanbehavior includes everthing that people do. A technical definition: “thatportion of an organism’s interaction with its environment that is characterizedby detectable displacement in space through time of some part of the organismand that results in a measureable change in at least one aspect of the environment”(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a, p 23). (See operant behavior, respondentbehavior, response, response class.)

Behavior-altering effect (of a motivatingoperation)

An alteration in the current frequency ofbehavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered ineffectiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, the frequency of behaviorthat has been reinforced with food is increased or decreased by fooddeprivation or food ingestion.

Behavior chain

A sequence of responses in which eachresponse produces a stimulus change that function as conditioned reinforcementfor that response and as a discriminative stimulus for the next response in thechain; reinforcement for the last response in a chain maintains the reinforcingeffectiveness of the stimulus changes produced by all previous responses in thechain.

Behaviorchain interruption strategy

An intervention that relies on theparticipant’s skill in performing the critical elements of a chain independently;the chain is interrupted occasionally so that another behavior can be emitted.

Behavior chain with a limited hold

A contingency that specifies a timeinterval by which a behavior chain must be completed for reinforcement to bedelivered.

Behavior change tactic

A technologically consistent method forchanging behavior derived from one or more principles of behavior (e.g.,differential reinforcement of other behavior, response cost); poseesessufficient generality across subjects, settings, and/or behaviors to warrantsits codification and dissemination.

Behavior checklist

A checklist that provides descriptions ofspecific skills (usually in hierarchical order) and the conditions under whicheach skill should be observed. Some checklists are designed to assess one particularbehavior or skill area. Others address multiple behaviors or skills areas. Mostuse a likert scale to rate response.

Behavior trap

An interrelated community of contingenciesof reinforcement that can be especially powerful, producing substantial andlong-lasting behavior changes. Effective behavior traps share four essentialfeatures: (a) they are “baited” with virtually irresistible reinforcers that “lure”the student to the trap; (b) only a low effort response already in the student’srepertoire is necessary to enter the trap; (c) once inside the trap,interrelated contingencies of reinforcement motivate the student to acquire,extend, and maintain targeted academic and/or social skills, and (d) they canremain effective for a long time because students shows few, if any, satiationeffects.

Behavioral assessment

A form of assessment that involves a fullrange of inquiry methods (observation, interview, testing, and the systematicmanipulation of antecedent or consequence variables ) to identify probableantecedent and consequent controlling variables. Behavioral assessment is designedto discover resource, assets, significant others, competing contingencies,maintainance and generality factors, and possible reinforcers and/or punishersthat surround the potential target behavior.

Behavioral contract  See contingency contract

Behavioralcontrast

The phenomenon in which a change in onecomponent of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the rate ofresponding on that component is accompanied by a change in the response rate inthe opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the schedule.

Behavioralcusp

A behavior that has sudden and dramaticconsequences that extend well beyond the idiosyncratic change itself because itexposes the person to new environment, reinforcers, contingencies, responses,and stimulus control.

Behavioral momentum

A metaphor to describe a rate of respondingand its resistance to change following an alteration in reinforcement conditions.The momentum metaphor has also been used to describe the effects produced bythe high-probability (High-p) request sequence.

Behaviorism

The philosophy of a science of behavior;there are various forms of behaviorism. (See methodological behaviorism,radical behaviorism.)

Believability

The extent to which the researcherconvinces herself and others that the data are trustworthy and deserveinterpretation. Measures of interobserver agreement (IOA) are the most oftenused index of believability in applied behavior analysis. (See interobserveragreement (IOA).)

Bonus response cost

A procedure for implementing response costin which the person is provided a reservoir of reinforcers that are removed inpredetermined amounts contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior.

Calibration

Any procedure used to evaluate the accuracyof a measurement system and, when sources of error are found, to use thatinformation to correct or improve the measurement system.

Celebration

The change (acceleration or deceleration)in rate of responding overtime; based on count per unit of time (rate);expressed as a factor by which responding is accelerating or decelerating(multiplying or dividing); displayed with a trend line on a Standard CelebrationChart. Celeration is a generic term without specific reference to acceleratingor decelerating rates of response. (See Standard Celeration Chart.)

Celebration time period

A unit of time (e.g., per week, per month)in which celebration is plotted on a Standard Celeration Chart. (See celebrationand celebration trend line)

Celebration trend line

The celebration trend line is measured as afactor by which rate multiplies or divides across the celebration time periods(e.g., rate per week, rate per month, rate per year, and rate per decade). (Seecelebration.)

Chained schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which theresponse requirements of two or more basic schedules must be met in a specificsequence before reinforcement is delivered; a discriminative stimulus iscorrelated with each component of the schedule.

Chaining

Various procedures for teaching behaviorchains. (See backward chaining, backward chaining with leaps ahead, behaviorchain, forward chaining.)

Changing criterion design

An experimental design in which an initialbaseline phase is followed by a series of treatment phases consisting ofsuccessive and gradually changing criterion for reinforcement or punishment. Experimentalcontrol is evidenced by the extent the level of responding changes to each newcriterion.

Clicker training

A term popularized by Pryor (1999) forshaping behavior using conditioned reinforcement in the form of an auditorystimulus. A handheld device produces a click sound when pressed. The trainerpairs other forms of reinforcement (e.g., edible treats) with the click soundso that the sound becomes a conditioned reinforce.

Component analysis

Any experimental design to identify theactive elements of a treatment condition, the relative contributions ofdifferent variables in a treatment package, and/or the necessary and sufficientcomponents of an intervention. Component analyses take many forms, but thebasic strategy is to compare levels of responding across successive phases inwhich the intervention is implemented with one or more components left out.

Compound schedule

A schedule of reinforcement consisting oftwo or more elements of continuous reinforcement (CRF), the four intermittentsschedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI), differential reinforcement ofvarious rates of responding (DRH, DRL), and extinction. The elements from thesebasic schedules can occur successively or simultaneously and with or withoutdiscriminative stimuli; reinforcenment may be contigent on meeting therequirements of each element of the schedule independently or in combinationwith all elements.

Concept formation

A complex example of stimulus control thatrequires stimulus generalization withina class of stimuli and discrimination between classes of stimuli.

Concurrent schedule (conc)

A schedule of reinforcement in which two ormore contingencies of reinforcement (elements) operate independently and simultaneouslyfor two or more behaviors.

Conditional probability

The likelihood that a target behavior willoccur in a given circumstance; computed by calculating (a) the proportion ofoccurrences of behavior that were preceded by a specific antecedent variableand (b) the proportion of occurrences of problem behavior that were followed bya specific consequence. Conditional probabilities range from 0.0 to 1.0; thecloser the conditional probablility is to 1.0, the stronger the relationship isbetween the target behavior and the antecedent/consequence variable.

Conditioned motivating operation (CMO)

A motivating operation whose value-alteringeffect depends on a learning history. For example, because of the relationbetween locked doors and keys, having to open a locked door is a CMO that makeskeys more effective as reinforcers, and evokes behavior that has obtained suchkeys.

Conditioned negative reinforce

A previously neutral stimulus change thatfunctions as a negative reinforce because of prior pairing with one or morenegative reinforcers. (See negative reinforce; compare with unconditionednegative reinforce).

Conditioned punisher

A previously neutral stimulus change thatfunctions as a punisher because of prior pairing with one or more otherpunishers; sometimes called secondary or learned punisher. (Compare withunconditioned punisher.)

Conditioned reflex

A conditioned stimulus-response functionalrelation consisting of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., sound of refrigerator dooropening) and the response it elicits (e.g., salivation); each person’srepertoire of conditioned reflexes is the product of his or her history ofinteractions with the environment (ontogeny). (See respondent conditioning,unconditioned reflex.)

Conditioned reinforce

A stimulus change that functions as a reinforcebecause of prior pairing with one or more other reinforcers; sometimes calledsecondary or learned reinforcer.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The stimulus component of a conditionedreflex; a formerly neutral stimulus change that elicits respondent behavioronly after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) or anotherCS.

Confidentiality

Describes a situation of trust insofar asany information regarding a person receiving or having received services maynot be discussed with or otherwise made available to another person or group,unless that person has provided explicit authorization for release of such information.

Conflict of interest

A situation in which a person in a positionof responsibility or trust has competing professional or personal intereststhat make it difficult to fulfill his or her duties impartially.

Confounding variable

An uncontrolled factor known or suspectedto exert influence on the dependent variable.

Consequence

A stimulus change that follows a behaviorof interest. Some consequences, especially those that are immediate andrelevant to current motivational states, have significant influence on future behavior;others have little effects. (See punisher, reinforcer.)

Contingency

Refers to dependent and/or temporalrelations between operant behavior and its controlling variables. (Seecontingent, three-term contingency.)

Contingency contract

A mutually agreed upon document betweenparties (e.g., parent and child) that speicifies a contingent relationshipbetween the completion of specified behavior(s) and access to specifiedreinrorcer(s).

Contingency reversal

Exchanging the reinforcement contingenciesfor two topographically different responses. For example, if Behavior A resultsin reinforcement on an FR1 schedule of reinforcement and Behavior B results inreinforcement being withheld (Extinction), a contingency reversal consists ofchanging the contingencies such that Behavior A now results in Extinction andBeahvior B results in reinforcement on an FR1 schedule.

Contingent

Describes reinforcement (or punishement)that is delivered only after the target behavior has occurred.

Contingent observation

A procedure for implementing timeout inwhich the person is repositioned within an existing setting such thatobservation of ongoing activities remains, but access to reinforcement is lost.

Continuous measurement

Measurement conducted in a manner such thatall instances of the response class(es) of interest are detected during theobservation period.

Continuous reinforcement (CRF)

A schedule of reinforcement that providesreinforcement for each occurrence of the target behavior.

Contrived contingency

Any contingency of reinforcement (orpunishment) designed and implemented by a behavior analyst or practitioner toachieve the acquisition, maintenance, and/or generalization of a targeted behaviorchange. (Contrast with naturally existing contingency.)

Contrived mediating stimulus

Any stimulus made functional for the targetbehavior in the instructional setting that later prompts or aids the learner inperforming the target behavior in a generalization setting.

Copying a text

An elementary verbal operant that is evokedby a nonvocal verbal discriminative stimulus that has point to pointcorrespondence and formal similarity with the controlling response.

Count

A simple tally of the number of occurrencesof a behavior. The observation period, or counting time, should always be notedwhen reporting count measures.

Counting time

The period of time in which the cumulativenumber of response emitted was recorded.

Cumulative record

A type of graph on which the cumulativenumber of response emitted is represented on the vertical axis; the steeper theslope of the data path, the greater the response rate.

Cumulative recorder

A device that automatically drawscumulative records (graphs) that show the rate of response in real time; eachtime a response emitted, a pen moves upward across paper that continuouslymoves at a constant speed.

Data

The results of measurenment, usually inquantifiable form; in applied behavior analysis, it refers to measures of somequantifiable dimension of a behavior.

Data path

The level and trend of behavior betweensuccessive data points; created by drawing a straight line from the center ofeach data point in a given data set to the center of the next data point in thesame set.

Delayed multiple baseline design

A variation of the multiple baseline designin which an initial baseline, and perhaps intervention, are begun for onebehavior (or setting, or subject), and subsequent baselines for additional behaviorsare begun in a staggered or delayed fashion.

Dependent group contingency

A contingency in which reinforcement forall members of a group is dependent on the behavior of one member of the groupor the behavior of a select group of members within the larger group.

Dependent variable

The variable in an experiment measured todetermine if it changes as a result of manipulations of the independent variable;in applied behavior analysis, it represents some measure of a sociallysignificant behavior. (See target behavior; compare with independent variable.)

Deprivation

The state of an organism with respect tohow much time has elapsed since it has consumed or contacted for a particulartype of reinforcer; also refers to a procedure for increasing the effectivenessof a reinforcer (e.g., withholding a person’s access to a reinforce for aspecified period of time prior to a session.) (See motivating operation;contrast with satiation)

Descending baseline

A data path that shows a decreasing trendin the response measure over time. (Compare with ascending baseline.)

Descriptive functional assessment

Direct observation of problem behavior andthe antecedent and consequent events under naturally occurring conditions.

Determinism

The assumption that the universe is alawful and orderly place in which pehenomena occur in relation to other eventsand not in a willy-nilly, accidental fashion.

Differential reinforcement

Reinforcing only those responses within aresponse class that meet a specific criterion along some dimension(s) (i.e.,frequency, topography, duration, latency, or magnitude) and placing all otherresponses in the class on extinction. (See differentional reinforcement ofalternative behavior; differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior,differential reinforcement of other behavior, discrimination training,shapping.)

Differential reinforcement of alternativebehavior (DRA)

A procedure for decreasing problem behaviorin which reinforcement is delivered for a behavior that serves as a desirablealternative to the behavior targeted for reduction and withheld followinginstances of the problem behavior (e.g., reinforcing completion of academicworksheet items when the behavior targeted for reduction is talk-outs).

Differential reinforcement of diminishingrates (DRD)

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcementis provided at the end of a predetermined interval contingent on the number ofresponses emitted during the interval being fewer than a gradually decreasingcriterion based on the individual’s performance in previous intervals (e.g.,fewer than five responses per 5 minutes, fewer than four responses per 5minutes, fewer than three responses per 5 minutes).

Differential reinforcement of high rates(DRH)

A schedule of reinforcement in whichreinforcement is provided at the end of a predetermined interval contingent onthe number of response emitted during the interval being greater than agradually increasing criterion based on the individual’s performance inprevious intervals (e.g., more than three responses per 5 minutes, more thanfive responses per 5 minutes, more than eight responses per 5 minutes).

Differential reinforcement of incompatiblebehavior (DRI)

A procedure for decreasing problem behaviorin which reinforcement is delivered for a behavior that is topographicallyincompatible with the behavior targeted for reduction and withheld followinginstances of the problem behavior (e.g., sitting in seat is incompatible withwalking around the room).

Differential reinforcement of low rates(DRL)

A schedule of reinforcement in whichreinforcement (a) follows each occurrence of the target behavior that isseparated from the previous response by a minimum interresponse time (IRT), or(b) is contingent on the number of responses within a period of time notexceeding a predertermined criterion. Practioners use DRL schedules to decreasethe trate of behaviors that occur too frequnently but should be maintained inthe learner’s repertoire. (See full-session DRL, interval DRL, andspaced-responding DRL.)

Differential reinforcement of otherbehavior (DRO)

A procedure for decreasing problem behaviorin which reinforcement is contingent on the absence of the problem behaviorduring or at specific times (i.e., momentary DRO); sometimes called differentialreinforcement of zero rates of responding or omission training). (Seefixed-interval DRO, fixed momentary DRO, variable-interval DRO, andVariable-momentary DRO.)

Direct measurement

Occurs when the behavior that is measuredis the same as the behavior that is the focus of the investigation. (Contrastwith indirect measurement.)

Direct replication

An experiment in which the researcherattempts to duplicate exactly the conditions of an earlier experiment.

Discontinuous measurement

Measurement conducted in a manner such thatsome instances of the response class(es) of interest may not be detected.

Discrete trial

Any operant whose response rate iscontrolled by a given opportunity to emit the response. Each discrete responseoccurs when an opportunity to respond exists. Discrete trial, restrictedoperant, and controlled operant are synonymous technical terms. (Contrast withfree operant.)

Discriminated avoidance

A contingency in which responding in thepresence of a signal prevents the onset of a stimulus from which escape is a reinforcer(See also discriminative stimulus, discriminated operant, free-operantavoidance, and stimulus control.)

Discriminatedperant

An operant that occurs more frequentlyunder some antecedent conditions than under others. (see discriminativestimulus,[SD] stimulus control.)

Discrinative stimulus [SD]

A stimulus in the presence of whichresponse of some type have been reinforced and in the absence of which the sametype of response have occurred and not been reinforced; this history ofdifferential reinforcement is the reason an SD increases themomentary frequency of the behavior. (See differential reinforcement, stimuluscontrol, stimulus discrimination training, and stimulus delta, [Sδ]

Double-blind control

A procedure that prevents the subject andthe observer(s) from detecting the presence or absence of the treatmentvariable; used to eliminate confounding of results by subject expectations,parent and teacher expectations, differential treatment by others, and observerbias. (See placebo control.)

DRI/DRA reversal technique

An experimental technique that demonstratesthe effects of reinforcement; it uses differential reinforcement of an incompatibleor alternative behavior (DRI/DFRA) as a control condition instead of ano-reinforcement (baseline) condition. During the DRI/DRA condition, thestimulus change used as reinforcement condition is presented contingent onoccurrences of a specified behavior that is either incompatible with the targetbehavior or an alternative to the target behavior. A higher level of respondingduring the reinforcement (?) condition than during the DRI/DRA conditiondemonstrates that the changes in behavior are the result of contingentreinforcement, not simply the presentation of a contact with the stimulusevent. (Compare with DRO reversal technique and noncontingent reinforcement(NCR) reversal technique.

DRO reversal technique

An experimental technique for demonstratingthe effects of reinforcement by using differential reinforcement of otherbehavior (DRO) as a control condition instead of a no-reinforcement (baseline)condition. During the DRO condition, the stimulus change used as reinforcementcondition is presented contingent on the absence of the target behavior for aspecified time period. A higher level of responding during the reinforcement conditionthan during the DRO condition demonstrates that the changes in behavior are theresult of contingent reinforcement, not simply the presentation of or contactwith the stimulus event. (Compare with DRI/DRA reversal technique andnoncontingent reinforcement (NCR) reversal technique.)

Duration

A measure of the total extent of time inwhich a behavior occurs.

Echoic

An elementary verbal operant involving aresponse that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus that haspoint-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response.

Ecological assessment

An assessment protocol that acknowledgescomplex interrelationships between environment and behavior. An ecologicalassessment is a method for obtaining data across multiple settings and persons.

Empiricism

The objective observation of the phenomenaof interest; objective observations are “independent of the individualprejudice, tastes, and private opinions of the scientist……Results of empiricalmethods are objective in that they are open to anyone’s observation and do notdepend on the subjective belief of the individual scientist” (Zuriff, 1985,p.9)

Environment

The conglomerate of real circumstances inwhich the organism or referenced part of the organism exists; behavior cannotoccur in the absence of environment.

Escape contingency

A contingency in which a responseterminates (produces escape from) an ongoing stimulus. (Compare with avoidancecontingency.)

Escape extinction

Behaviors maintained with negativereinforcement are placed on escape extinction when those behaviors are notfollowed by termination of the aversive stimulus; emitting the target behaviordoes not enable the person to escape the aversive situation.

Establishing operation (EO)

A motivating operation that establishes(increases) the effectiveness of some stimulus, object, or event as a reinforcer.For example, food deprivation establishes food as an effective reinforce.

Ethical codes of behavior

Statements that provide guidelines formembers of professional associations when deciding a course of action orconducting professional duties; standards by which graduated sanctions (e.g.,reprimand, censure, expulsion) can be imposed for deviating from the code.

Ethics

Behaviors, practices, and decisions thataddress such basic and fundamental questions as: what is the right thing to do?What’s worth doing? What does it mean to be a good behavior analyticpractitioner?

Event recording

Measurement procedure for obtaining a tallyor count of the number of times a behavior occurs.

Evocative effect (of a motivatingoperation)

An increase in the current frequency of behaviorthat has been reinforced by the stimulus that is increased in reinforcingeffectiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, food deprivationevokes (increases the current frequency of )behavior that has been reinforcedby food.

Exact count-per-interval IOA

The percentage of total intervals in whichtwo observers recorded the same count; the most stringent description of IOAfor most data sets obtained by event recording.

Exclusion time-out

A procedure for implementing time-out inwhich, contingent on the occurrence of a target behavior, the person is removedphysically from the current environment for a specific period.

Experiment

A carefully controlled comparison of somemeasure of the phenomenon of interest (the dependent variable) under two ormore different conditions in which only one factor at a time (the independentvariable) differs from one condition to another.

Experimental analysis of behavior (EAB)

A natural science approach to the study ofbehavior as a subject matter in its own right founded by B.F.Skinner;methodological features include rate of responses as a basic dependentvariable, repeated or continuous measurement of clearly defined responseclasses, within-subject experimental comparisons instead of group design,visual analysis of graphed data instead of statistical inference, and anemphasis on describing functional relations between behavior and controllingvariables in the environment over formal theory testing.

Experimental control

Two meanings: (a) the outcome of anexperiment that demonstrates convincingly a functional relation, meaning thatexperimental control is achieved when a predictable change in behavior (thedependent variable) can be reliably produced by manipulating a specific aspectof the environment (the independent variable); and (b) the extent to which aresearcher maintains precise control of the independent variable by presentingit, withdrawing it, and/or varying its value, and also by eliminating orholding constant all confounding and extraneous variables. (See confoundingvariable, extraneous variable, and independent variable.)

Experimental design

The particular type and sequence ofconditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of thepresence and absence (or different values) of the independent variable can bemade.

Experimental question

A statement of what the researcher seeks tolearn by conducting the experiment; may be presented in question form and ismost often found in a published account as a statement of the experiment’spurpose. All aspects of an experiment’s design should follow from theexperimental question (also called the research question).

Explanatory fiction

A fictitious or hypothetical variable thatoften takes the form of another name for the observed phenomenon it claims toexplain and contributes nothing to a functional account or understanding of thephenomenon, such as “intelligence” or “cognitive awareness” as explanations forwhy an organism pushes the lever when the light is on and food is availale butdoes not push the lever when the light is off and no food is available.

External validity

The degree to which a study’s findings havegenerality to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors. (Compare to internalvalidity)

Extinction (operant)

The discontinuing of a reinforcement of apreviously reinforced behavior (i.e., response no longer producereinforcement); the primary effect is a decrease in the frequency of thebehavior until it reaches a prereinforced level or ultimately cease to occur.(See extinction burst, spontaneous recovery; compare respondent extinction)

Extinction burst

An increase in the frequency of respondingwhen an extinction procedure is initially implemented.

Extraneous variable

Any aspect of the experimental setting(e.g., lighting, temperature) that must be held constant to prevent unplannedenvironment variation.