北大六院郭延庆：应用行为分析专业名词表（下）

北大六院郭延庆

小半年前，为备课行为分析，启动了重读这部700多页英文原版的行为圣经的想法。如今课已结束，书也读完。

 临至末了，小时候抄书的癖好又痒痒难耐。手打了A到Z所有专业词汇共50多页。到今天早上顺利完成。算是给这一年的家长成长论坛的一个献礼吧。 

书不在读多而贵读精，我资质鲁钝，家境贫寒，遇好书每生抄之的想法。如今年近五十仍有此好，不知当喜还是当哭！ 

（续中……）

Satiation

A decrease in the frequency of operantbehavior presumed to be the result of continued contact with or consumption ofa reinforce that has followed the behavior; also refers to a procedure forreducing the effectiveness of a reinforce (e.g., presenting a person withcopious amounts of a reinforcing stimulus prior to a session). (See motivatingoperation; contrast with deprivation.)

Scatterplot

A two-dimensional graph that shows therelative distribution of individual measures in a data set with respect to thevariables depicted by the x and y axes. Data points on a scatterplot are notconnected.

Schedule of reinforcement

A rule specifying the environmentalarrangements and response requirements for reinforcement; a description of acontingency of reinforcement.

Schedule thinning

Changing a contingency of reinforcement bygradually increasing the response ratio or the extent of the time interval; itresults in a lower rate of reinforcement per response, time or both.

Science

A systematic approach to the understandingof natural phenomena (as evidenced by description, prediction, and control)that relies on determinism as its fundamental assumption, empiricism as itsprimary rule, experimentation as its basic strategy, replication as arequirement for believability, parsimony as a value, and philosophic doubt asits guiding conscience.

Scored-interval IOA

An interoberserver agreement index basedonly on the intervals in which either observer recorded the occurrence of thebehavior; calculated by dividing the number of intervals in which the two observersagreed that the behavior occurred by the number of intervals in which either orboth observers recorded the occurrence of the behavior and multiplying by 100. Scored-intervalIOA is recommended as a measure of agreement for behaviors that occur at lowrates because it ignores the intervals in which agreement by chance is highlylikely. (compare to interval-by-interval IOA and unscored-interval IOA.)

Selection by consequences

The fundamental principle underlyingoperant conditioning; the basic tenet is that all forms of (operant) behavior,from simple to complex, are selected, shaped, and maintained by theirconsequences during the individual’s lifetime; Skinner’s concept of selectionby consequences is parallel to Darwin’s concept of natural selection of geneticstructures in the evolution of species.

Self-contract

Contingency contract that a person makeswith himself, incorporating a self-selected task and reward as well as personalmonitoring of task completions and self-delivery of the reward.

Self-control

Two meanings (a) A person’s ability to “delaygratification” by emitting a response that will produce a larger (or highquality) delayed reward over a response that produces a smaller but immediatereward (sometimes considered impulse control); (b) A person’s behaving in acertain way so as to change a subsequent behavior (i.e., to self-manage her ownbehavior). Skinner (1953) conceptualized self-control as a two-responsephenomenon: the controlling response affects variables in such a way as tochange the probability of the controlled response. (See self-management.)

Self-evaluation

A procedure in which a person compares hisperformance of a target behavior with a predetermined goal or standard; often acomponent of self-management. Sometimes called self-assessment.

Self-instruction

Self-generated verbal responses, covert orovert, that function as rules or response prompts for a desired behavior;as aself-management tactic, self-instruction can guide a person through a behaviorchain or sequence of tasks.

Self-management

The personal application of behavior changetactics that produces a desired change in behavior.

Self-monitoring

A procedure whereby a person systematicallyobserves his behavior and records the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a targetbehavior. (Also called self-recording or self-observation.)

Semilogarithmic chart

A two-dimensional graph with a logarithmicscaled y axis so that equal distances on the vertical axis represent changes inbehavior that are of equal proportion. (See standard celebration chart.)

Sensory extinction

The process by which behaviors maintainedby automatic reinforcement are placed on extinction by masking or removing thesensory consequence.

Sequence effects

The effects on a subject behavior in agiven condition that are the result of the subject’s experience with a priorcondition.

Setting/situation generalization

The extent to which a learner emits thetarget behavior in a setting or stimulus situation that is different from the instructionalsetting.

Shaping

Using differential reinforcement to producea series of gradually changing response classes; each response class is asuccessive approximation toward a terminal behavior. Members of an existingresponse class are selected for differential reinforcement because they moreclosely resemble the terminal behavior. (See differential reinforcement,response class, response differentiation, successive approximations.)

Single-subject designs

A wide variety of research designs that usea form of experimental reasoning called baseline logic to demonstrate theeffects of the independent variable on the behavior of individual subjects.(also called single-case, within-subject designs) (See also alternatingtreatment design, baseline logic, changing criterion design, multiple baselinedesign, reversal design, steady state strategy.)

Social validity

Refers to the extent to which targetbehaviors are appropriate, intervention procedures are acceptable, andimportant and significant changes in target and collateral behaviors areproduced.

Solistic (tact) extension

A verbal response evoked by a stimulusproperty that is only indirectly related to the proper tact relation (e.g.,Yogi Berra’s classic malapropism: “Baseball is ninety percent mental; the otherhalf is physical.”

Spaced-responding DRL

A procedure for implementing DRL in whichreinforcement follows each occurrence of the target behavior that is separatedfrom the previous response by a minimum interresponse time (IRT). (See differentialreinforcement of low rates (DRL).)

Speaker

Someone who engages in verbal behavior byemiting mands, tacts, intraverbals, autoclitics, and so on. A speaker is alsosomeone who uses sign language, gestures, signals, written words, codes,pictures, or any form of verbal behavior. (Contrast with listener.)

Split-middle line of progress

A line drawn through a series of grapheddata points that shows the overall trend in the data; drawn through theintersections of the vertical and horizontal middles of each half of thecharted data and then adjusted up or down so that half of all the data pointsfall on or above and half fall on or below the line.

Spontaneous recovery

A behavioral effect associated withextinction in which the behavior suddenly begins to occur after its frequencyhas decreased to its prereinforcement level or stopped entirely.

Stable baseline

Data that show no evidence of an upward ordownward trend; all of the measures fall within a relatively small range ofvalues. (See steady state responding.)

Standard celebration chart

A multiply-divide chart with six base-10(or ×10,÷10)cycles on the vertical axis thatcan accommodate response rates as low as 1 per 24 hours (0.000695 per minute)to as high as 1000 per minute. It enables the standardized charting of celebration,a factor by which rate of behavior multiplies or divides per unit of time. (seesemilogarithmic chart.)

Steady state responding

A pattern of responding that exhibitsrelatively little variation in its measured dimensional quantities over aperiod of time.

Steady state strategy

Repeatedly exposing a subject to a givencondition while trying to eliminate or control extraneous influences on thebehavior and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing thenext condition.

Stimulus

“An energy change that affects an organismthrough its receptor cells” (Michael, 2004, P.7)

Stimulus class

A group of stimuli that share specifiedcommon elements along formal (e.g., size, color), temporal (e.g., antecedent orconsequent), and/or functional (e.g., discriminative stimulus) dimensions.

Stimulus control

A situation in which the frequency,latency, duration, or amplitude of a behavior is altered by the presence orabsence of an antecedent stimulus. (See discrimination, discriminativestimulus.)

Stimulus delta (Sδ)

A stimulus in the presence of which a givenbehavior has not produced reinforcement in the past. (Contrast withdiscriminative stimulus, (SD).)

Stimulus discrimination training

The conventional procedure requires onebehavior and two antecedent stimulus conditions. Responses are reinforced inthe presence of one stimulus condition, the SD, but not in thepresence of the other stimulus, the Sδ.

Stimulus equivalence

The emergence of accurate responding tountrained and nonreinforced stimulus-stimulus relations following thereinforcement of responses to some stimulus-stimulus relations. A positivedemonstration of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity is necessary to meetthe definition of equivalence.

Stimulus generalization

When an antecedent stimulus has a historyof evoking a response that has been reinforced in its presence, the same typeof behavior tends to be evoked by stimuli that share similar physicalproperties with the controlling antecedent stimulus.

Stimulus generalization gradient

A graphic depiction of the extent to whichbehavior that has been reinforced in the presence of a specific stimuluscondition is emitted in the presence of other stimuli. The gradient showsrelative degree of stimulus generalization and stimulus control (or discrimination).A flat slope across test stimuli shows a high degree of stimulus generalizationand relatively little discrimination between the trained stimulus and otherstimuli; a slope that drops sharply from its highest point corresponding to thetrained stimulus indicates a high degree of stimulus control (discrimination)and relatively little stimulus generalization.

Stimulus preference assessment

A variety of procedures used to determinethe stimuli that a person prefers, the relative preference values (high versuslow) of those stimuli, the conditions under which those preference valuesremain effect, and their presumed values as reinforcers.

Stimulus-stimulus pairing

A procedure in which two stimuli arepresented at the same time, usually repeatedly for a number of trials, whichoften results in one stimulus acquiring the function of the other stimulus.

Successive approxiamations

The sequence of new response classes thatemerge during the shaping process as the result of differential reinforcement;each successive response class is closer in form to the terminal behavior thanthe response class it replaces.

Surrogate conditioned motivating operation(CMO-S)

A stimulus that acquires its MOeffectiveness by being paired with another MO and has the same value-alteringand behavior-altering effects as the MO with which it was paired.

Symmetry

A type of stimulus-to-stimulus relationshipin which the learner, without prior training or reinforcement for doing so,demonstrates the reversibility of matched sample and comparison stimuli(e.g.,if A =B, then B =A). Symmetry would be demonstrated in the followingmatching-to-sample procedure: the learner is taught, when presented with thespoken word car (sample stimulus A), to select a comparison picture of a car(comparison B). When presented with the picture of a car (sample stimulus B),without additional training or reinforcement, the learner selects thecomparison spoken word car (comparison A). (see stimulus equivalence; compareto reflexivity, transitivity.)

Systematic desensitization

A behavior therapy treatment for anxieties,fears, and phobias that involves substituting one response, generally musclerelaxation, for the unwanted behavior-the fear and anxiety. The clientpractices relaxing while imaging anxiety-producing situations in a sequencefrom the least fearful to the most fearful.

Systematic replication

An experiment in which the researcherpurposefully varies one or more aspects of an earlier experiment. A systematicreplication that reproduces the results of previous research not onlydemonstrates the reliability of the earlier findings but also adds to theexternal validity of the earlier findings by showing that the same effect canbe obtained under different conditions.

Tact

An elementary verbal operant evoked by anonverbal discriminative stimulus and followed by generalized conditionedreinforcement.

Tandem schedule

A schedule of reinforcement identical tothe chained schedule except, like the mix schedule, the tandem schedule doesnot use discriminative stimuli with the elements in the chain. (See chainedschedule, mixed schedule.)

Target behavior

The response class selected forintervention; can be defined either functionally or topographically.

Task analysis

The process of breaking a complex skill orseries of behaviors into smaller, teachable units; also refers to the resultsof this process.

Teaching loosely

Randomly varying functionally irrelevantstimuli within and across teaching sessions; promotes setting/situationgeneralization by reducing the likelihood that (a) a single or small group ofnoncritical stimuli will acquire exclusive control over the target behavior and(2) the learner’s performance of the target behavior will be impeded or “thrownoff” should he encounter any of the “loose” stimuli in the generalizationsetting.

Teaching sufficient examples

A strategy for promoting generalizedbehavior change that consists of teaching the learner to respond to a subset ofall of the relevant stimulus and response examples and then assessing thelearner’s performance on untrained examples. (See multiple exemplar training.)

Temporal extent

Refers to the fact that every instance of behavioroccurs during some amount of time; one of the three dimensional quantities ofbehavior from which all behavioral measurements are derived. (Se repeatabilityand temporal locus.)

Temporal locus

Refers to the fact that every instance of behavioroccurs at a certain point in time with respect to other events (i.e., when intime behavior occurs can be measured); often measured in terms of responselatency and interresponse time (IRT); one of the three dimensional quantitiesof behavior from which all behavioral measurements are derived. (Seerepeatability, temporal extent.)

Terminal behavior 

The end product of shaping.

Textual

An elementary verbal operant involving aresponse that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus that haspoint-to-point correspondence, but not formal similarity, between the stimulusand the response product.

Three-term contingency

The basic unit of analysis in the analysisof operant behavior; encompasses the temporal and possibly dependent relationsamong an antecedent stimulus, behavior, and consequence.

Time-out from positive reinforcement

The contingent withdrawal of theopportunity to earn positive reinforcement or the loss of access to positivereinforcers for a specified time; a form of negative punishment (also calledtime-out).

Time-out ribbon

A procedure for implementing nonexclusiontime-out in which a child wears a ribbon or wristband that becomesdiscriminative for receiving reinforcement. Contingent on misbehavior, theribbon is removed and access to social and other reinforcers are unavailablefor a specific period. When time-out ends, the ribbon or band is returned tothe child and time-in begins.

Time sampling

A measurement of the presence or absence ofbehavior within specific time intervals. It is most useful with continuous andhigh-rate behaviors. (See momentary time sampling, partial-interval recordingand whole-interval recording.)

Token

An object that is awarded contingent onappropriate behavior and that serves as the medium of exchange for backupreinforcers.

Token economy

A system whereby participants earngeneralized conditioned reinforcers (e.g., tokens, chips, points) as animmediate consequence for specific behaviors;participants accumulate tokens andexchange then for items and activities from a menu of backup reinforcers. (Seegeneralized conditioned reinforce.)

Topography

The physical form or shape of a behavior.

Topography-based definition

Defines instances of the targeted responseclass by the shape or form of the behavior.

Total count IOA

The simplest indicator of IOA for eventrecording data; based on comparing the total count recorded by each observerper measurement period; calculated by dividing the smaller of the two observers’counts by the larger count and multiplying by 100.

Total duration IOA

A relevant index of IOA for total durationmeasurement; computed by dividing the shorter of the two durations reported bythe observers by the longer duration and multiplying by 100.

Total-task chaining

A variation of forward chaining in whichthe learner receives training on each behavior in the chain during eachsession.

Transcription

An elementary verbal operant involvingspoken verbal stimulus that evokes a written, typed, or finger-spelledresponse. Like the textual, there is point-to-point correspondence between thestimulus and the response product, but no formal similarity.

Transitive conditioned motivating operation(CMO-T)

An environmental variable that, as a resultof a learning history, establishes (or abolishes) the reinforcing effectivenessof another stimulus and evokes (or abate) the behavior that has been reinforcedby that other stimulus.

Transitivity

A derived (i.e., untrained)stimulus-stimulus relation (e.g., A=C, C=A) that emerges as a product oftraining two other stimulus-stimulus relations (e.g., A=B and B=C). Forexample, transitivity would be demonstrated if, after training the twostimulus-stimulus relations shown in 1 and 2 below, the relation shown in 3emerges without additional instruction or reinforcement:

(1) If A (e.g.,spoken word bicycle)=B(e.g.,the picture of a bicycle) (see Figure 17.3), and

(2) B (the picture of a bicycle)=C(e.g.,the written word bicycle) (See Figure 17.4), then

(3) C (the written word bicycle)=A (thespoken name, bicycle) (see Figure 17.5). *see stimulus equivalence; compare toreflexivity, symmetry.)

Treatment drift

An undesirable situation in which theindependent variable of an experiment is applied differently during laterstages than it was at the outset of the study.

Treatment integrity

The extent to which the independentvariable is applied exactly as planned and described and no other unplannedvariables are administered inadvertently along with the planned treatment. Alsocalled procedural fidelity.

Trend

The overall direction taken by a data path.It is described in terms of direction (increasing, decreasing, or zero trend),degree (gradual or steep), and the extent of variability of data points aroundthe trend. Trend is used in predicting future measures of the behavior underunchanging conditions.

Trial-by-trail IOA

An IOA index for discrete trial data basedon comparing the observers’ count (0 or 1) on a trial-by-trial, oritem-by-item, basis; yields a more conservative and meaningful index of IOA fordiscrete trial data than does total count IOA.

Trials-to-criterion

A special form of event recording; a measureof the number of responses or practice opportunities needed for a person toachieve a preestablished level of accuracy or proficiency.

True value

A measure accepted as a quantitativedescription of the true state of some dimensional quantity of an event as itexists in nature. Obtaining true values requires “special or extraordinaryprecautions to ensure that all possible sources of error have been avoided orremoved” (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a, p.136). (Compare with observedvalue.)

Type 1 error

An error that occurs when a researcherconcludes that the independent variable had an effect on the dependentvariable, when no such relation exists; a false positive. (contrast with type 2error.)

Type 2 error

An error that occurs when a researcherconcludes that the independent variable no effect on the dependent variable,when in truth it did; a false negative. (Contrast with type 1 error.)

Unconditioned motivating operation (UMO)

A motivating operation whose value-alteringeffect does not depend on a learning history. For example, food deprivationincreases the reinforcing effectiveness of food without the necessity of anylearning history.

Unconditioned negative reinforcer

A stimulus that functions as a negative reinforceras a result of the evolutionary development of the species (phylogeny); noprior learning is involved (e.g., shock, loud noise, intense light, extremetemperatures, strong pressure against the body). (See negative reinforcer;compare with conditioned negative reinforcer.)

Unconditioned negative punisher

A stimulus change that decreases thefrequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of theorganism’s learning history with the stimulus. Unconditioned punishers areproducts of the evolutionary development of the species (phylogeny), meaningthat all members of a species are more or less susceptible to punishment by thepresentation of unconditioned punishers (also called primary or unlearnedpunishers). (compare with conditioned punisher.)

Unconditioned reflex

An unlearned stimulus-response functionalrelation consisting of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., food in mouth) thatelicits the response (e.g., salivation); a product of the phylogenic evolutionof a given species; all biologically intact members of a species are born withsimilar repertoires of unconditioned reflexes. (See conditioned reflex.)

Unconditioned reinforcer

A stimulus change that increases thefrequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of theorganism’s learning history with the stimulus. Unconditioned reinforcers arethe product of the evolutionary development of the species (phylogeny). Alsocalled primary or unlearned reinforcer. (Compare with conditioned reinforcer.)

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

The stimulus component of an unconditionedreflex; a stimulus change that elicits respondent behavior without any priorlearning.

Unpairing

Two kinds: (a) the occurrence alone of astimulus that acquired its function by being paired with an already effectivestimulus, or (b) the occurrence of the stimulus in the absence as well as inthe presence of the effective stimulus. Both kinds of unpairing undo the resultof the pairing: the occurrence alone of the stimulus that became a conditionedreinforcer; and the occurrence of the unconditioned reinforcer in the absenceas well as in the presence of the conditioned reinforcer.

Unscored-interval IOA

An interobserver agreement index based onlyon the intervals in which either observer recorded the nonoccurrence of thebehavior; calculated by dividing the number of intervals in which the twoobservers agreed that the behavior did not occur by the number of intervals inwhich either or both observers recorded the nonoccurrence of the behavior andmultiplying by 100. Unscored-interval IOA is recommended as a measure ofagreement for behaviors that occur at high rates because it ignores theintervals in which agreement by chance is highly likely. (Compare tointerval-by-interval IOA, scored-interval IOA.)

Validity (of measurement)

The extent to which data obtained frommeasurement are directly relevant to the target behavior of interest and to thereason(s) for measuring it.

Value-altering effect (of a motivatingoperation)

An alteration in the reinforcingeffectiveness of stimulus, object, or event as a result of a motivatingoperation. For example, the reinforcing effectiveness of food is altered as aresult of food deprivation and food ingestion.

Variability

The frequency and extent to which multiplemeasures of behavior yield different outcomes.

Variable baseline

Data points that do not consistently fallwithin a narrow range of values and do not suggest any clear trend.

Variable interval (VI)

A schedule of reinforcement that providesreinforcement for the first correct response following the elapse of variabledurations of time occurring in a random or unpredictable order. The meanduration of the intervals is used to describe the schedule (e.g., on a VI10-minute schedule, reinforcement is delivered for the first response followingan average of 10 minutes since the last reinforced response, but the time thatelapse following the last reinforced response might range from 30 seconds orless to 25 minutes or more).

Variable-interval DRO (VI-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement is availableat the end of intervals of variable duration and delivered contingent on theabsence of the problem behavior during the interval. (See differentialreinforcement of other behavior (DRO).)

Variable-momentary DRO (VM-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement isavailable at the specific moments of time, which are separated by variableamounts of time in random sequence, and delivered if the problem is not occurringat those times. (See differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO).)

Variable ratio (VR)

A schedule of reinforcement requiring avarying number of responses for reinforcement. The number of responses requiredvaries around a random number; the mean number of responses required forreinforcement is used to describe the schedule (e.g., on a VR 10 schedule anaverage of 10 responses must be emitted following the last reinforced responsemight range from 1 to 30 or more).

Variable-time schedule (VT)

A schedule for the delivery ofnoncontingent stimuli in which the interval of time from one delivery to thenext randomly varies around a given time. For example, on a VT 1-minutesschedule, the delivery-to-delivery interval might range from 5 seconds to 2minutes, but the average interval would be 1 minute.

Verbal behavior

Behavior whose reinforcement is mediated bya listener; includes both vocal-verbal behavior (e.g., saying “water, please”to get water) and nonvocal-verbal behavior (pointing to a glass of water to getwater). Encompasses the subject matter usually treated as language and topicssuch as thinking, grammar, composition, and understanding.

Verification

One of three components of the experimentalreasoning, or baseline logic, used in single-subject research designs;accomplished by demonstrating that the prior level of baseline responding wouldhave remained unchanged had the independent variable not been introduced. Verifyingthe accuracy of the original prediction reduces the probability that someuncontrolled (confounding) variable was responsible for the observed change in behavior.(See prediction, replication.)

Visual analysis

A systematic approach for interpreting theresults of behavioral research and treatment programs that entails visualinspection of graphed data for variability, level, and trend within and between  experimental conditions.

Whole-interval recording

A time sampling method for measuringbehavior in which the observation period is divided into a series of brief timeintervals (typically from 5 to 15 seconds). At the end of each interval, theobserver records whether the target behavior occurred throughout the entireinterval; tends to underestimate the proportion of the observation period thatmany behaviors actually occurred.

Withdrawal design

A term used by some authors as a synonymfor A-B-A-B design; also used to describe experiments in which an effectivetreatment is sequentially or partially withdrawn to promote the maintenance of behaviorchanges. (See A-B-A-B design, reversal design.)